Owners have filed 23 complaints
about the 2025 Ford Mustang Mach E with NHTSA between 2025 and 2026.
The largest single group is the electrical system.
Across this model's run it ranks 5 of 5 worst.
The letter says how bad. This says what kind — whether this year drew
an unusual number of complaints, unusually dangerous
ones, or failures that arrived unusually early.
The dashed ring is 50 — the national norm. Further out is worse.
Complaint volume — 5
Against the median year of the Ford Mustang Mach E. 50 means typical for this
model; 100 means roughly double.
Severity — 0
0% of these complaints
involved a crash, fire, injury or death, against a national rate of
9.7%.
Early failure — not reported
Too few complaints recorded a mileage to measure this.
How 2025 compares with every other Ford Mustang Mach E
Complaints filed with NHTSA, by model year. Bar colour is the FaultScore grade:
A
B
C
D
F
ungraded
What breaks on a 2025 Ford Mustang Mach E
Every complaint is filed against a part. Follow any row for the complaints about that part alone.
Electrical System
626.1%
Brakes
417.4%
Other & Unspecified
313.0%
Transmission & Drivetrain
313.0%
Driver Assist & Collision Avoidance
28.7%
Wheels
14.3%
Windows, Mirrors & Wipers
14.3%
Fuel & Propulsion
14.3%
Acceleration & Cruise Control
14.3%
Body & Structure
14.3%
Median failure at 1,700 miles
When owners complained
A spike years after the car went on sale usually means a part wearing
out on schedule across the whole fleet — the kind of pattern no single
owner can see from inside their own car.
Jul 2025peak 6Jun 2026
Recalls on the 2025 Ford Mustang Mach E
A complaint is one owner's allegation. A recall is the point at which
the manufacturer or a regulator agreed the defect is real and dangerous
enough to fix for free — however old the car is.
Canada — Transport Canada
Canada runs its own recall programme, and its campaigns do not
always mirror the American ones.
Recall 20257046,945 units in Canada
Lights And Instruments
Issue: On certain vehicles, the light emitting diode (LED) driver module in the headlight assemblies could fail. If this happens, the high and low beam headlights, parking lights, daytime running lights and turn signal lights may not work. Note: This problem would cause an "Advanced Front Lighting Feature Temporarily Unavailable" warning message to be displayed and the turn signal telltale to flash at the same speed as when a turn signal bulb fails. Safety Risk: Headlights and/or exterior lights that don't work properly could reduce visibility and/or make the vehicle less visible to others. Turn signals that don't work properly may cause a person not to recognize when a driver intends to turn or change lanes. These issues could increase the risk of a crash. Corrective Actions: Ford will notify owners by mail and send a wireless over-the-air software update to eligible vehicles to update the LED driver module software. Alternatively, you may schedule an appointment to have the update performed at a Ford dealership.
Recall 202569150,037 units in Canada
Powertrain
Issue: On certain vehicles, a problem in the integrated park module could cause the park pawl not to engage when the transmission is shifted to the park (P) position. If this happens, the vehicle could move when it's parked, and the parking brake isn't used. Note: This problem would cause a wrench light and a shift system fault message to be displayed in the instrument cluster. For the Maverick, Escape and Corsair models, this recall only affects vehicles equipped with a 2.5 L hybrid engine. For the F-150 model, this recall only affects Lightning (electric) models. Safety Risk: A parked vehicle that rolls away could create the risk of an injury or a crash. Corrective Actions: Ford will notify owners by mail and advise you to take your vehicle to a dealership to update the secondary on board diagnostic module (SOBDMC) software.
Recall 2025417426 units in Canada
Lights And Instruments
Issue: On certain vehicles, the light emitting diode (LED) driver module in the headlight assemblies could fail. If this happens, the high and low beam headlights, parking lights, daytime running lights and turn signal lights may not work. For Nautilus models, this could also cause the rear tail lights, turn signals and parking lights not to work. Note: This problem would cause an "Advanced Front Lighting Feature Temporarily Unavailable" warning message to be displayed and the turn signal telltale to flash at the same speed as when a turn signal bulb fails. Safety Risk: Headlights and/or exterior lights that don't work properly could cause reduce visibility and/or make the vehicle less visible to others. Turn signals that don't work properly may cause a person not to recognize when a driver intends to turn or change lanes. These issues could increase the risk of a crash. Corrective Actions: Ford will notify owners by mail and advise you to take your vehicle to a dealership to inspect and, if necessary, replace the LED driver module.
Recall 202532632,569 units in Canada
Electrical
Issue: Under certain conditions, the electronic door latches could stay locked after the driver and/or front passenger exit the vehicle. As a result, you may not be able to open the doors from the outside, or an occupant that's unable to use the inside door handle(s) may not be able to exit the vehicle on their own. Safety Risk: Doors that can't be opened from the outside could delay emergency responders from entering the vehicle. This could also slow certain occupants from exiting the vehicle in an emergency. Both issues could increase the risk of injury. Corrective Actions: Ford will notify owners by mail and advise you to take your vehicle to a dealership to update the powertrain control module (PCM) and secondary on-board diagnostic control module (SOBDMC) software.
Recall 202532120 units in Canada
Brakes
Issue: On certain vehicles, the transmission park rod may have been damaged during manufacturing. As a result, when the transmission is shifted into the park ("P") position, the vehicle could move if the parking brake isn't applied. Safety Risk: A parked vehicle that moves suddenly could create the risk of an injury or a crash. Corrective Actions: Ford will notify owners by mail and advise you to take your vehicle to a dealership to replace the transmission park rod assembly.
In the owners' own words, exactly as filed with NHTSA.
Uniontown, OH
UNKNOWN OR OTHER
Spitzer Ford in [XXX] sold me a new 2025 Ford Mustang Mach E with an open recall. I purchased the vehicle on xxx and this recall had been open and active since 1/26/26. 2 days after buying the vehicle xxx the dealership started calling me about an open recall that needed fixed. I was told by the dealership that they could not list the car as sold with Ford until the recall had been adjusted and they were waiting on a $4,000 rebate. If this recall was open since January, known to the dealership, and aware that it was not fixed, how can they sell a brand new vehicle with an open safety recall. The recall was rectified by the dealership on xxxbut illegally sold me the car on xxx with the open recall. I would like somebody to contact the dealership and rectify the situation so they are not selling brand new cars with open safety recalls to other patrons. They openly admitted they couldn't list the car as sold through Ford until the recall was complete. I'm assuming because they sold a new car with an open recall. The sales manager was dismissive and then started telling me how much he was gonna have to put into my trade for them to sell it. INFORMATION REDACTED PURSUANT TO THE FREEDOM OF INFORMATION ACT (FOIA), 5 U.S.C. 552(B)(6)
NHTSA complaint #11743722 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Oxford, MI
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
I was driving normally at about 45 mph with no strong acceleration, after about 20 minutes of driving... Then Cross Traffic Alert, Crash Alert, ABS Failure Alert, Parking Brake Fault Alert, and probably more alerts suddenly went off while driving. Warning Lights for all these features stayed on, and I completely lost regenerative braking and power braking. I'm not sure if I lost anything else because I immediately pulled over, having to stand on the brakes to slowly stop. Once at a stop, I put it in park and warnings about parking brake faults continued to go off. I turned off the car, and warning about a parking brake fault continued to go off. I waited a few seconds and then opened the door to force the normal system shutdown. I pressed the brake and hit the start button again, but it didn't seem to recognize that I had pressed the brake and started in accessory (ACC) mode. After a few more second, I pressed the brake again and hit the start button (while still in ACC Mode), and the vehicle moved to full running mode without all of the warnings. This situation could have easily resulted in a full crash if I were driving at a faster speed and/or if I required immediate stopping.
NHTSA complaint #11742703 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Oxford, MI
SERVICE BRAKES
I was driving normally at about 45 mph with no strong acceleration, after about 20 minutes of driving... Then Cross Traffic Alert, Crash Alert, ABS Failure Alert, Parking Brake Fault Alert, and probably more alerts suddenly went off while driving. Warning Lights for all these features stayed on, and I completely lost regenerative braking and power braking. I'm not sure if I lost anything else because I immediately pulled over, having to stand on the brakes to slowly stop. Once at a stop, I put it in park and warnings about parking brake faults continued to go off. I turned off the car, and warning about a parking brake fault continued to go off. I waited a few seconds and then opened the door to force the normal system shutdown. I pressed the brake and hit the start button again, but it didn't seem to recognize that I had pressed the brake and started in accessory (ACC) mode. After a few more second, I pressed the brake again and hit the start button (while still in ACC Mode), and the vehicle moved to full running mode without all of the warnings. This situation could have easily resulted in a full crash if I were driving at a faster speed and/or if I required immediate stopping.
NHTSA complaint #11742703 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Oxford, MI
FORWARD COLLISION AVOIDANCE: WARNINGS
I was driving normally at about 45 mph with no strong acceleration, after about 20 minutes of driving... Then Cross Traffic Alert, Crash Alert, ABS Failure Alert, Parking Brake Fault Alert, and probably more alerts suddenly went off while driving. Warning Lights for all these features stayed on, and I completely lost regenerative braking and power braking. I'm not sure if I lost anything else because I immediately pulled over, having to stand on the brakes to slowly stop. Once at a stop, I put it in park and warnings about parking brake faults continued to go off. I turned off the car, and warning about a parking brake fault continued to go off. I waited a few seconds and then opened the door to force the normal system shutdown. I pressed the brake and hit the start button again, but it didn't seem to recognize that I had pressed the brake and started in accessory (ACC) mode. After a few more second, I pressed the brake again and hit the start button (while still in ACC Mode), and the vehicle moved to full running mode without all of the warnings. This situation could have easily resulted in a full crash if I were driving at a faster speed and/or if I required immediate stopping.
NHTSA complaint #11742703 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Columbus, OH
UNKNOWN OR OTHER
On Thursday, May28 I was driving my 2025 Ford Mach-2 on Schrock Rd. in Columbus, Ohio at approximately 3:30 PM when the hood (the "frunk") of the car unexpectedly unlatched and opened, flying up to a vertical position and obscuring my view of traffic. I was driving in the left lane of this road at 40-45 mph. My view of the road was immediately obstructed, but I was able to crouch sufficiently to see enough of the road ahead and the mirrors on each side to navigate to the right lane and then to the side of the road, pull off safely, turn the car off, exit, and close the frunk firmly. I was away from home when this occurred. When I got in the care to drive home, there was a warning that came on, for the first time, that read as follows: FRUNK FAULT DETECTED; SERVICE REQUIRED. There was no advice to avoid driving the car. I checked the hood/frunk to be sure that it was firmly closed, then started for home, avoiding my usual freeway drive at 65mph for a slower trip on local roads. It is a good thing I did, because the risk of a major accident with injury and serious property damage would have been far greater at higher speed. I arrived home without the frunk opening again, called for Ford Roadside Assistance, and arranged to have the car towed to Germain Ford of Columbus, where it still is, awaiting the delivery of a new frunk latch system. The dealer has determined that there is likely a defective sensor in the frunk latch. This is a known issue with the Ford Mach-e, affecting not only the frunk but also sometimes the hatch lid in the rear.This is a serious safety hazard, and a review of reports over several models years from Mach-e owners indicates that I am not alone in having experienced it. At highway speeds a suddenly unlatched frunk/hood would not only open to the vertical, but conceivable also be smashed against the windshield or ripped off the vehicle and become airborne. Ford is aware of the issue, for there is are technical service bulletins covering it.
NHTSA complaint #11741785 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Columbus, OH
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
On Thursday, May28 I was driving my 2025 Ford Mach-2 on Schrock Rd. in Columbus, Ohio at approximately 3:30 PM when the hood (the "frunk") of the car unexpectedly unlatched and opened, flying up to a vertical position and obscuring my view of traffic. I was driving in the left lane of this road at 40-45 mph. My view of the road was immediately obstructed, but I was able to crouch sufficiently to see enough of the road ahead and the mirrors on each side to navigate to the right lane and then to the side of the road, pull off safely, turn the car off, exit, and close the frunk firmly. I was away from home when this occurred. When I got in the care to drive home, there was a warning that came on, for the first time, that read as follows: FRUNK FAULT DETECTED; SERVICE REQUIRED. There was no advice to avoid driving the car. I checked the hood/frunk to be sure that it was firmly closed, then started for home, avoiding my usual freeway drive at 65mph for a slower trip on local roads. It is a good thing I did, because the risk of a major accident with injury and serious property damage would have been far greater at higher speed. I arrived home without the frunk opening again, called for Ford Roadside Assistance, and arranged to have the car towed to Germain Ford of Columbus, where it still is, awaiting the delivery of a new frunk latch system. The dealer has determined that there is likely a defective sensor in the frunk latch. This is a known issue with the Ford Mach-e, affecting not only the frunk but also sometimes the hatch lid in the rear.This is a serious safety hazard, and a review of reports over several models years from Mach-e owners indicates that I am not alone in having experienced it. At highway speeds a suddenly unlatched frunk/hood would not only open to the vertical, but conceivable also be smashed against the windshield or ripped off the vehicle and become airborne. Ford is aware of the issue, for there is are technical service bulletins covering it.
NHTSA complaint #11741785 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
at 1,700 milesSan Francisco, CA
STRUCTURE
The contact owns a 2025 Ford Mustang Mach-E. The contact stated that upon entering the vehicle and backing out of his driveway, heard an abnormal scraping sound coming from the vehicle. Upon exiting the vehicle, the contact discovered that the charging port door had opened independently and scraped the garage door frame. As a result, the frame on the charging port door had detached from the vehicle and was on the floor. Despite the failure, the contact slid the panel back into the door; however, the charging port door would not close. The contact then used painter tape to secure the charging port door and drove immediately to the dealer. As the contact explained the failure to the dealer, they contended that the failure was caused by normal use and that the repair would not be covered under warranty or recall. The manufacturer was notified of the failure by mail and received a response that the repair would not be covered under warranty. The contact then called the manufacturer and was informed that there were no programs that would cover the repair. The vehicle was repaired. The failure mileage was approximately 1,700.
NHTSA complaint #11738479 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Henderson, NV
WHEELS
I noticed that I kept receiving a low tire pressure warning on my car. I would have it filled and then a few days later, the warning appeared again. I took the car in to the dealership to let them know there is an issue with my tire on 11/24/2025. The dealership then stated that I had to pay for a replacement tire. I asked if there was any type of warranty on the tire as I have only had the vehicle for a few months. They stated I had to purchase a new tire. I do not feel that I should pay for a defected tire. I have not driven the vehicle due to safety and want help in resolving this issue as the defect should be covered.
NHTSA complaint #11708431 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Vallejo, CA
VEHICLE SPEED CONTROL
Dash completely turned off. We could not see speed, gear, battery life, etc. See attached photo of the dash board above the steering wheel. Tried turning car off and on, tried resetting the monitor. Dealership service advisor witnessed this. The technician could not replicate it, and they did not have a solution but it is now back on. Worried it may happen again, opened up a buy back claim but dealership thinks we don’t have a strong case since they couldn’t find anything.
NHTSA complaint #11706310 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Vallejo, CA
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
Dash completely turned off. We could not see speed, gear, battery life, etc. See attached photo of the dash board above the steering wheel. Tried turning car off and on, tried resetting the monitor. Dealership service advisor witnessed this. The technician could not replicate it, and they did not have a solution but it is now back on. Worried it may happen again, opened up a buy back claim but dealership thinks we don’t have a strong case since they couldn’t find anything.
NHTSA complaint #11706310 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Plano, TX
POWER TRAIN
Summary: My 2025 Ford Mustang Mach-E GT has repeatedly experienced a complete and unexpected loss of propulsion while driving in active traffic. Each time, the vehicle displayed a red “Stop Safely Now” warning with additional critical alerts, followed by an immediate loss of forward motion with no prior indication. This left the vehicle stalled in traffic and created a significant safety hazard. Details of Each Incident: While driving under normal conditions or coming to a stop, the vehicle triggered the red “Stop Safely Now” alert with powertrain and brake warnings. Propulsion shut down instantly and the vehicle locked in Park, leaving it immobilized in traffic lane. I had to exit the vehicle and wait for it to complete a full power-down cycle before it would restart. After restarting, the vehicle operated with reduced functionality and limited range. Ford Roadside Assistance was contacted for every incident. Safety Concern: A sudden loss of forward motion in moving traffic poses a serious crash risk to me and to other drivers. The repeated nature of this failure suggests a defect in the propulsion system, sensors, electrical components or related modules. Current Status: The vehicle is now at the local Ford dealership for evaluation. I have also notified Ford Corporate Customer Care. The root cause has not yet been identified or resolved. Requested Action: I request that NHTSA document this complaint and consider further review due to the recurring safety-related failure and the potential risk to other owners.
NHTSA complaint #11704393 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Plano, TX
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
Summary: My 2025 Ford Mustang Mach-E GT has repeatedly experienced a complete and unexpected loss of propulsion while driving in active traffic. Each time, the vehicle displayed a red “Stop Safely Now” warning with additional critical alerts, followed by an immediate loss of forward motion with no prior indication. This left the vehicle stalled in traffic and created a significant safety hazard. Details of Each Incident: While driving under normal conditions or coming to a stop, the vehicle triggered the red “Stop Safely Now” alert with powertrain and brake warnings. Propulsion shut down instantly and the vehicle locked in Park, leaving it immobilized in traffic lane. I had to exit the vehicle and wait for it to complete a full power-down cycle before it would restart. After restarting, the vehicle operated with reduced functionality and limited range. Ford Roadside Assistance was contacted for every incident. Safety Concern: A sudden loss of forward motion in moving traffic poses a serious crash risk to me and to other drivers. The repeated nature of this failure suggests a defect in the propulsion system, sensors, electrical components or related modules. Current Status: The vehicle is now at the local Ford dealership for evaluation. I have also notified Ford Corporate Customer Care. The root cause has not yet been identified or resolved. Requested Action: I request that NHTSA document this complaint and consider further review due to the recurring safety-related failure and the potential risk to other owners.
NHTSA complaint #11704393 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Plano, TX
SERVICE BRAKES
Summary: My 2025 Ford Mustang Mach-E GT has repeatedly experienced a complete and unexpected loss of propulsion while driving in active traffic. Each time, the vehicle displayed a red “Stop Safely Now” warning with additional critical alerts, followed by an immediate loss of forward motion with no prior indication. This left the vehicle stalled in traffic and created a significant safety hazard. Details of Each Incident: While driving under normal conditions or coming to a stop, the vehicle triggered the red “Stop Safely Now” alert with powertrain and brake warnings. Propulsion shut down instantly and the vehicle locked in Park, leaving it immobilized in traffic lane. I had to exit the vehicle and wait for it to complete a full power-down cycle before it would restart. After restarting, the vehicle operated with reduced functionality and limited range. Ford Roadside Assistance was contacted for every incident. Safety Concern: A sudden loss of forward motion in moving traffic poses a serious crash risk to me and to other drivers. The repeated nature of this failure suggests a defect in the propulsion system, sensors, electrical components or related modules. Current Status: The vehicle is now at the local Ford dealership for evaluation. I have also notified Ford Corporate Customer Care. The root cause has not yet been identified or resolved. Requested Action: I request that NHTSA document this complaint and consider further review due to the recurring safety-related failure and the potential risk to other owners.
NHTSA complaint #11704393 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Fairhope, AL
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
I traded in my vehicle and purchased a new vehicle on September 27, 2025. After signing the contract, I was informed that there were two recalls on the vehicle that would be taken care of by the end of the day. I was allowed to use my trade-in as a loaner vehicle until the end of the day when I came back. It has been almost a full month and I still have not received possession of my new vehicle. There is no estimated date of the dealership receiving the part to repair the recall. I was told that things haven’t been the same since Covid so nobody knows how long it will take. I have been able to use my trade-in, which was paid off by the dealership, as a loaner, but I want my new vehicle or I want to know my options for looking for another car. I will be making my second payment on my new vehicle, which I have not had, in one day.
NHTSA complaint #11695844 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Fairhope, AL
SERVICE BRAKES
I traded in my vehicle and purchased a new vehicle on September 27, 2025. After signing the contract, I was informed that there were two recalls on the vehicle that would be taken care of by the end of the day. I was allowed to use my trade-in as a loaner vehicle until the end of the day when I came back. It has been almost a full month and I still have not received possession of my new vehicle. There is no estimated date of the dealership receiving the part to repair the recall. I was told that things haven’t been the same since Covid so nobody knows how long it will take. I have been able to use my trade-in, which was paid off by the dealership, as a loaner, but I want my new vehicle or I want to know my options for looking for another car. I will be making my second payment on my new vehicle, which I have not had, in one day.
NHTSA complaint #11695844 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Houston, TX
POWER TRAIN
The Dealer sold me the car which is on recalls he sold this car to me on Saturday October 11th till date he didn’t give me my car there is active recall on it it is parking Rod something he is not giving update. If Ford customer care they are not sharing proper time line . When they will give back my car the Ford is not fallowing proper timeline to give my car Till date they didn’t tell me when they are giving my car which they sold 5 days ago
NHTSA complaint #11694117 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Sacramento, CA
POWER TRAIN
Shift system fault in the middle of the road. Unable to shift to Park, vehicle stuck in middle of road unable to shift to Drive either. E-brake auto engaged on street. Vehicle tells me to shift to Park but is unable to shift. Vehicle odometer is under 900 miles. New lease.
NHTSA complaint #11685189 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Sacramento, CA
SERVICE BRAKES
Shift system fault in the middle of the road. Unable to shift to Park, vehicle stuck in middle of road unable to shift to Drive either. E-brake auto engaged on street. Vehicle tells me to shift to Park but is unable to shift. Vehicle odometer is under 900 miles. New lease.
NHTSA complaint #11685189 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Sacramento, CA
FUEL/PROPULSION SYSTEM
Shift system fault in the middle of the road. Unable to shift to Park, vehicle stuck in middle of road unable to shift to Drive either. E-brake auto engaged on street. Vehicle tells me to shift to Park but is unable to shift. Vehicle odometer is under 900 miles. New lease.
NHTSA complaint #11685189 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Portsmouth, VA
UNKNOWN OR OTHER
VIN: [XXX] Recall data refreshed on Aug 09,2025 0 Unrepaired Recalls associated with this VIN Please BROADCAST the following reported RECALLs which are incomplete: 2025 Mustang Mach-E Safety Recalls* Powertrain control module and secondary on-board diagnostic control module c software upddate Recall incomplete Park rod replacement Recall incomplete INFORMATION REDACTED PURSUANT TO THE FREEDOM OF INFORMATION ACT (FOIA), 5 U.S.C. 552(B)(6)
NHTSA complaint #11679492 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Portsmouth, VA
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
VIN: [XXX] Recall data refreshed on Aug 09,2025 0 Unrepaired Recalls associated with this VIN Please BROADCAST the following reported RECALLs which are incomplete: 2025 Mustang Mach-E Safety Recalls* Powertrain control module and secondary on-board diagnostic control module c software upddate Recall incomplete Park rod replacement Recall incomplete INFORMATION REDACTED PURSUANT TO THE FREEDOM OF INFORMATION ACT (FOIA), 5 U.S.C. 552(B)(6)
NHTSA complaint #11679492 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Portsmouth, VA
FORWARD COLLISION AVOIDANCE: WARNINGS
VIN: [XXX] Recall data refreshed on Aug 09,2025 0 Unrepaired Recalls associated with this VIN Please BROADCAST the following reported RECALLs which are incomplete: 2025 Mustang Mach-E Safety Recalls* Powertrain control module and secondary on-board diagnostic control module c software upddate Recall incomplete Park rod replacement Recall incomplete INFORMATION REDACTED PURSUANT TO THE FREEDOM OF INFORMATION ACT (FOIA), 5 U.S.C. 552(B)(6)
NHTSA complaint #11679492 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Metairie, LA
VISIBILITY/WIPER
Windshield had a stress crack after 300 miles.
NHTSA complaint #11674774 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.