Owners have filed 47 complaints
about the 2022 Audi E-Tron with NHTSA between 2022 and 2026.
The largest single group is the electrical system.
Across this model's run it ranks 2 of 3 worst.
The letter says how bad. This says what kind — whether this year drew
an unusual number of complaints, unusually dangerous
ones, or failures that arrived unusually early.
The dashed ring is 50 — the national norm. Further out is worse.
Complaint volume — 32
Against the median year of the Audi E-Tron. 50 means typical for this
model; 100 means roughly double.
Severity — 100
23.4% of these complaints
involved a crash, fire, injury or death, against a national rate of
9.7%.
Early failure — 100
100% of failures with a mileage on record happened under
36,000 miles, against a national rate of
29%.
A spike years after the car went on sale usually means a part wearing
out on schedule across the whole fleet — the kind of pattern no single
owner can see from inside their own car.
Sep 2022peak 4May 2026
NHTSA investigations into the 2022 Audi E-Tron
An investigation is the step before a recall: the agency has seen enough
complaints to look into a pattern itself. An open one means it thinks
something may be wrong and nothing has been fixed yet.
DP22005Opened 27 Jan 2023Closed 7 Aug 2023ELECTRICAL SYSTEM:PROPULSION SYSTEM
Pedestrian alert sounds
NHTSA received a petition on or about July 18, 2022, requesting that Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) 141 be applied to all electric and hybrid vehicles operating in the United States. The petition can be reviewed at NHTSA.gov under ODI Number 11486072. FMVSS 141 establishes performance requirements for pedestrian alert sounds for motor vehicles. The standard applies to hybrid and electric vehicles that have a gross vehicle weight rating of 4,536 KG or less or are defined as low-speed vehicles. The standard became fully applicable to all such vehicles manufactured on or after Marc...
Recalls on the 2022 Audi E-Tron
A complaint is one owner's allegation. A recall is the point at which
the manufacturer or a regulator agreed the defect is real and dangerous
enough to fix for free — however old the car is.
Canada — Transport Canada
Canada runs its own recall programme, and its campaigns do not
always mirror the American ones.
Recall 20261871,860 units in Canada
Brakes
Issue: On certain vehicles, the brake booster input rod may not have been tightened properly. As a result, the input rod could detach from the brake booster and cause a loss of brakes. Note: This recall is an expansion of Transport Canada recall no. 2024-670. For 2020-2024 model years, this recall affects both Sportback and SUV models. Safety Risk: A loss of brakes can increase the risk of a crash. Corrective Actions: Audi will notify owners by mail and advise you to take your vehicle to a dealership to inspect and, if necessary, tighten the brake booster input rod screw joint.
Recall 202571330,276 units in Canada
Visual System
Issue: On certain vehicles, a software problem could cause the rearview camera image not to appear on the display. Canadian regulations require the rearview image to display when the transmission is shifted into reverse gear. Safety Risk: A rearview camera image that doesn't display could reduce a driver's ability to see behind the vehicle while backing up. This could increase the risk of a crash. Corrective Actions: Audi will notify owners by mail and advise you to take your vehicle to a dealership to update the rearview camera software.
Recall 20236862,016 units in Canada
High Voltage
Issue: On certain vehicles, a problem with high-voltage battery module(s) could cause the high-voltage battery to overheat. Safety Risk: A high-voltage battery that overheats could create a fire risk. Corrective Actions: Audi will notify owners by mail. As an interim repair, a dealer will inspect and, if necessary, replace the battery modules. Once the final repair is available, you will need to return to a dealership to install a software update for the high-voltage battery. This software will monitor the high-voltage battery and warn you if it detects a problem. To reduce the safety risk, Audi recommends that you set the maximum charge setting of your vehicle at 80% until the final recall repairs are completed.
Recall 202365912,469 units in Canada
Accessories
Issue: Under certain conditions, the plug for the 220 V compact vehicle charging cable could become damaged by the house power outlet. As a result, the cable could overheat while charging. Note: This recall only affects electric and plug-in hybrid electric (PHEV) models. Safety Risk: Wiring that overheats could create a fire risk. Corrective Actions: Audi will notify owners by mail and advise you to take your vehicle to a dealership to replace the vehicle charging cable. For unsold vehicles, the dealer will remove the charging cable before they are delivered to consumers.
Recall 2022611880 units in Canada
Visual System
Issue: On certain vehicles, the infotainment main unit in the center console could fail. If this happens, the display screen will not turn on when you start the vehicle and the rearview camera image will not appear when backing up. Canadian regulations require the rearview image to display when the transmission is shifted into reverse. Safety Risk: A rearview camera image that does not display could reduce a driver's ability to see behind the vehicle while backing up. This could increase the risk of a crash. Corrective Actions: Audi will notify owners by mail and instruct you to take your vehicle to a dealership to replace the infotainment unit.
Reports where the owner recorded a crash, a fire, an injury or a death.
St Paul, MNFire
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
CATASTROPHIC ELECTRICAL FAILURE - SMOKE IN CABIN While driving with passengers, dashboard displayed "ELECTRICAL FAILURE - PULL OVER WHEN SAFE" followed by loud explosive POP and cabin filled with SMOKE. ROOT CAUSE: Prior undisclosed collision damage. Dealer (Morrie's Golden Valley Cadillac) removed front bumper in June 2025 (Repair Order #78683), then sold vehicle as "no accidents" in August 2025. Subsequent inspection revealed cut wiring and improper repairs (Invoice #94609). CURRENT STATUS: Vehicle inoperable 3+ months. Audi corporate technicians have repaired major problem however vehicle still has charging issues that happened right before the catastrophic failure unable to repair. SAFETY CONCERN: Smoke-filled cabin endangered occupants. Potential fire hazard.
NHTSA complaint #11716739 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Franklin Township, NJCrashFire1 injured
AIR BAGS
On 1/18/23, I was driving my 2022 E-tron on a roadway that had no center lane markings. I had my seatbelt and cruise control on. I was traveling at 34mph straight on the right side of the roadway. Suddenly, and without warning, my car took control, drove off the road to the right, and crashed into a tree. I suffered severe injuries, including but not limited to, loss of consciousness, concussion with vertigo, vision problems, neck, back, left arm/hand, and left leg injuries. I continue to suffer from my injuries to this day.
NHTSA complaint #11603401 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Franklin Township, NJCrashFire1 injured
STEERING
On 1/18/23, I was driving my 2022 E-tron on a roadway that had no center lane markings. I had my seatbelt and cruise control on. I was traveling at 34mph straight on the right side of the roadway. Suddenly, and without warning, my car took control, drove off the road to the right, and crashed into a tree. I suffered severe injuries, including but not limited to, loss of consciousness, concussion with vertigo, vision problems, neck, back, left arm/hand, and left leg injuries. I continue to suffer from my injuries to this day.
NHTSA complaint #11603401 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Franklin Township, NJCrashFire1 injured
SERVICE BRAKES
On 1/18/23, I was driving my 2022 E-tron on a roadway that had no center lane markings. I had my seatbelt and cruise control on. I was traveling at 34mph straight on the right side of the roadway. Suddenly, and without warning, my car took control, drove off the road to the right, and crashed into a tree. I suffered severe injuries, including but not limited to, loss of consciousness, concussion with vertigo, vision problems, neck, back, left arm/hand, and left leg injuries. I continue to suffer from my injuries to this day.
NHTSA complaint #11603401 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
I purchased an Audi eTron 2022 in November 0f 2021. My wife has always loved the brand. Indeed, if you look at your sales records, you’ll find that we’ve purchased a Q5, two Q7s, and most recently an eTron from Audi North Austin. We’ve also always used your store for all the maintenance of our Audis. Approximately 5 months after buying the eTron we started experiencing glitches: -Screen randomly powering off -Random warnings, indicating something or another was not functioning. -The alarm would go off while the car in parked in our home garage. The key FOB was unable to disengage the alarm even if we get into the car and start it. The main issue I want to address is the most disturbing. On approximately 6 occasions, the car would come to an abrupt stop while traveling at about 35-45mph. I contacted Audi North Austin to have these issues looked at. I was given an appointment that was about two months out. In any case, this lea to the first visit to your service department for diagnostic and to address the issues. A couple of the minor issues listed above were fixed. However, we were informed that the abrupt stopping issue was escalated to Audi HQ but no fix was currently available. The service department rep did say, the did a software update and that might address the issue. About two weeks after the car was returned to us. We once again experienced the abrupt stopping again. (FYI, the impact of those stops is equivalent to getting rear-ended) This led to visit two. On this visit I was more reassured than the first visit. I spoke to Edwin and he was very sympathetic to our plight. He even suggested what he thought the problem might be. He mentioned that there is a sensor that runs down the side of the driver’s side and that that sensor may need to be replaced. Unfortunately, Edwin was wrong. Because a few weeks later while traveling about 45-50mph merging onto [XXX] . This particular incident put us closer to death that the previous ones. Several vehicles INFORMATION REDACTED PURSUANT TO THE FREEDOM OF INF
NHTSA complaint #11557530 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
The most recent complaints
In the owners' own words, exactly as filed with NHTSA.
Orleans, MA
UNKNOWN OR OTHER
From time to time the driver's door does not latch completely so the door is only partially closing. Dealer was able to duplicate the problem but will not replace (estimated cost for new door latch is just under $800.) at their expense. It appears that others have had the same problem. When driving the car air rushes into the vehicle as the door is not fully shut. I worry that this problem could be very serious should I be in an accident with a partially closed door rather than a fully closed door. The problem first appeared early in the winter and seems to be getting worse.
NHTSA complaint #11736149 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Atlanta, GA
SERVICE BRAKES
Brakes were replaced by Audi with genuine Audi parts and within 2 months, the brake rotors became warped, requiring a resurfacing. After driving another 2 months, they once again became warped, making the entire car lurch and shake during braking.
NHTSA complaint #11735621 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Crown Point, IN
POWER TRAIN
My drive motors keep failing (so far 3 times) and my emergency braking abruptly stops my vehicle when no true danger is present and I’m in complete control of my vehicle. Currently my vehicle has a constant shuddering while braking which doesn’t feel safe because it’s not braking properly. Audi regional and the dealership refuses to take ownership of the issue. Dealer has confirmed issue and replaced drive motors three times. Each time my braking system has gotten worse. The part was replaced each time under warranty but Audi has not confirmed that a fix has been found and corrected. This means it can occur again and abruptly which can absolutely be a safety hazard as it was each time it failed on me.
NHTSA complaint #11728417 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Crown Point, IN
SERVICE BRAKES
My drive motors keep failing (so far 3 times) and my emergency braking abruptly stops my vehicle when no true danger is present and I’m in complete control of my vehicle. Currently my vehicle has a constant shuddering while braking which doesn’t feel safe because it’s not braking properly. Audi regional and the dealership refuses to take ownership of the issue. Dealer has confirmed issue and replaced drive motors three times. Each time my braking system has gotten worse. The part was replaced each time under warranty but Audi has not confirmed that a fix has been found and corrected. This means it can occur again and abruptly which can absolutely be a safety hazard as it was each time it failed on me.
NHTSA complaint #11728417 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
My drive motors keep failing (so far 3 times) and my emergency braking abruptly stops my vehicle when no true danger is present and I’m in complete control of my vehicle. Currently my vehicle has a constant shuddering while braking which doesn’t feel safe because it’s not braking properly. Audi regional and the dealership refuses to take ownership of the issue. Dealer has confirmed issue and replaced drive motors three times. Each time my braking system has gotten worse. The part was replaced each time under warranty but Audi has not confirmed that a fix has been found and corrected. This means it can occur again and abruptly which can absolutely be a safety hazard as it was each time it failed on me.
NHTSA complaint #11728417 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
at 16,000 milesMiami, FL
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
The contact owns a 2022 Audi E-Tron. The contact stated that while driving at various speeds, the vehicle independently switched to SAFE Mode and failed to properly accelerate while depressing the accelerator pedal. Additionally, the mileage range was reduced, and the battery recharging time increased. The failure started after the vehicle was repaired under the NHTSA Campaign Number: 23V867000 (ELECTRICAL SYSTEM). The vehicle was taken to the local dealer, but no failure was found with the vehicle. The vehicle was later taken to an independent mechanic who reported that the amperage of the battery had been reduced from 400 amps to 130 amps. The manufacturer was notified of the failure, but no assistance was offered. The failure mileage was 16,000.
NHTSA complaint #11719794 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
St Paul, MNFire
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
CATASTROPHIC ELECTRICAL FAILURE - SMOKE IN CABIN While driving with passengers, dashboard displayed "ELECTRICAL FAILURE - PULL OVER WHEN SAFE" followed by loud explosive POP and cabin filled with SMOKE. ROOT CAUSE: Prior undisclosed collision damage. Dealer (Morrie's Golden Valley Cadillac) removed front bumper in June 2025 (Repair Order #78683), then sold vehicle as "no accidents" in August 2025. Subsequent inspection revealed cut wiring and improper repairs (Invoice #94609). CURRENT STATUS: Vehicle inoperable 3+ months. Audi corporate technicians have repaired major problem however vehicle still has charging issues that happened right before the catastrophic failure unable to repair. SAFETY CONCERN: Smoke-filled cabin endangered occupants. Potential fire hazard.
NHTSA complaint #11716739 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Burnsville, MN
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
The vehicles software system regularly crashes and/or does not load leaving all camera functionality and safety alerts inoperable. I have had the vehicle in to address these concerns 5 times with no resolve from the manufacturer. Even with video evidence they claim the vehicle is functioning as intended. This is in direct violation of FMVSS 111 as the rearview camera is regularly not available. Sometimes the system reboots within seconds and sometimes it takes 10 minutes or more.
NHTSA complaint #11701360 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Burnsville, MN
LANE DEPARTURE: BLIND SPOT DETECTION
The vehicles software system regularly crashes and/or does not load leaving all camera functionality and safety alerts inoperable. I have had the vehicle in to address these concerns 5 times with no resolve from the manufacturer. Even with video evidence they claim the vehicle is functioning as intended. This is in direct violation of FMVSS 111 as the rearview camera is regularly not available. Sometimes the system reboots within seconds and sometimes it takes 10 minutes or more.
NHTSA complaint #11701360 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Burnsville, MN
BACK OVER PREVENTION: REARVIEW SYSTEM BRAKING
The vehicles software system regularly crashes and/or does not load leaving all camera functionality and safety alerts inoperable. I have had the vehicle in to address these concerns 5 times with no resolve from the manufacturer. Even with video evidence they claim the vehicle is functioning as intended. This is in direct violation of FMVSS 111 as the rearview camera is regularly not available. Sometimes the system reboots within seconds and sometimes it takes 10 minutes or more.
NHTSA complaint #11701360 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Bolingbrook, IL
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
The car occasionally does not respond to pushing the pedal to accelerate. The first time it happened, I though it was user error after sitting at a light. Well within the same 30 minutes it happened again entering a carwash. Today I was sitting at a light waiting for it to turn green. Once green, I pushed the accelerator to go and the car would not accelerate. This is the second time in two weeks and approximately fifth time since I purchased the car in October 2023. No dashboard warning prior to this.
NHTSA complaint #11685926 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Bolingbrook, IL
ENGINE
The car occasionally does not respond to pushing the pedal to accelerate. The first time it happened, I though it was user error after sitting at a light. Well within the same 30 minutes it happened again entering a carwash. Today I was sitting at a light waiting for it to turn green. Once green, I pushed the accelerator to go and the car would not accelerate. This is the second time in two weeks and approximately fifth time since I purchased the car in October 2023. No dashboard warning prior to this.
NHTSA complaint #11685926 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Danbury, NH
SERVICE BRAKES
Brakes do not work when there is a precipitation. You need to press the brake 3 times before you can feel the brakes engage. This occurs anytime it rains or snows for the entire time we’ve owned the car and Audi refuses to acknowledge the complaint
NHTSA complaint #11664097 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Raleigh, NC
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
The contact owns a 2022 Audi E-Tron. The contact received notification of NHTSA Campaign Number: 23V867000 (Electrical System); however, the part to do the recall repair was not yet available. The local dealer was not contacted. The contact stated that the manufacturer had exceeded a reasonable amount of time for the recall repair. The manufacturer was not made aware of the issue. The contact had not experienced a failure. VIN tool confirms parts not available.
NHTSA complaint #11649095 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Winchester, CA
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
Audi issued a recall notice in December 2023 regarding the high voltage battery possibly causing a fire. In the past 15 months since the recall I have not received any correspondence from Audi on a fix. I have checked with my Audi service manager several times and he stated Audi is monitoring the vehicle high voltage modules. I feel 15 months is excessive time for the manufacturer to provide a fix/repair to close the recall. This also affects the ability to trade or sell the car with a unrepaired recall.
NHTSA complaint #11648559 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Belmont, CA
POWER TRAIN
I was driving on the interstate freeway in normal conditions when my 2022 Audi E-tron suddenly showed a message "Electrical system malfunction!" and lost all power to the motors. Thankfully I was in the rightmost lane already and I was able to steer and coast over to the shoulder even while pressing the gas pedal had no effect. If I had been in another lane it could have led to a major accident if my car stalled in the middle of a busy freeway. I had the vehicle towed to the local Audi dealer service center, but so far they have not been able to diagnose the problem.
NHTSA complaint #11644045 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Belmont, CA
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
I was driving on the interstate freeway in normal conditions when my 2022 Audi E-tron suddenly showed a message "Electrical system malfunction!" and lost all power to the motors. Thankfully I was in the rightmost lane already and I was able to steer and coast over to the shoulder even while pressing the gas pedal had no effect. If I had been in another lane it could have led to a major accident if my car stalled in the middle of a busy freeway. I had the vehicle towed to the local Audi dealer service center, but so far they have not been able to diagnose the problem.
NHTSA complaint #11644045 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Belmont, CA
ENGINE
I was driving on the interstate freeway in normal conditions when my 2022 Audi E-tron suddenly showed a message "Electrical system malfunction!" and lost all power to the motors. Thankfully I was in the rightmost lane already and I was able to steer and coast over to the shoulder even while pressing the gas pedal had no effect. If I had been in another lane it could have led to a major accident if my car stalled in the middle of a busy freeway. I had the vehicle towed to the local Audi dealer service center, but so far they have not been able to diagnose the problem.
NHTSA complaint #11644045 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
at 13,000 milesBulverde, TX
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
The contact owns a 2022 Audi E-Tron. The contact received notification of NHTSA Campaign Number: 23V867000 (Electrical System); however, the part to do the recall repair was not yet available. The contact stated while charging the vehicle, the contact noticed that the charging outlet was burned and melted, and the juice box, the plug, and the charging cable had melted, nearly causing the contact's residence to catch on fire. The vehicle was taken to the dealer, where the onboard diagnostic software was installed on the vehicle and an unknown kit was replaced as an interim repair. The vehicle was not repaired. The contact stated that the manufacturer had exceeded a reasonable amount of time for the recall repair. The manufacturer was made aware of the failure. The failure mileage was approximately 13,000. VIN tool confirms parts not available.
NHTSA complaint #11641647 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Anchorage, AK
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
No incident occurred. However, Audi recalled my EV (2022 Audi E-tron) months ago, stating there exists a fire hazard associated with these vehicles. Audi has not provided any effective remedy. The sole advice offered was to refrain from charging the battery beyond 80%. However, Audi has not substantiated the claim that this measure is protective, and it also restricts the performance and intended range of the affected vehicles. I contacted Audi of America and my local Audi dealer, but both entities have been unhelpful and unable to offer any reassurance or scientific data. Battery monitoring software is allegedly scheduled to be released this quarter (originally promised in the final quarter of 2024). This proposed solution appears insufficient. Thermal runaway could potentially lead to a fire without sufficient warning to protect consumers, even with software in place. Clearly, Audi should be compelled to replace the batteries before a consumer sustains an injury or fatalities occur due to thermal runaway and fire. Several incidents of fires involving these vehicles have been reported in the United States and other jurisdictions. Audi has since discontinued using these specific batteries and has access to safer and more efficient alternatives. I urge the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) to compel Audi to provide a genuine remedy to this issue as soon as possible to safeguard consumers.
NHTSA complaint #11634140 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
at 15,000 milesNewton Center, MA
SERVICE BRAKES, HYDRAULIC:FOUNDATION COMPONENTS:DISC:ROTOR
The contact owns a 2022 Audi E-Tron. The contact stated while driving at an undisclosed speed, the rotors were pulsating and shaking. The contact stated while driving 65 MPH, unknown sensors engaged without an object or vehicle nearby. The contact had set the system to the lowest sensitivity. There were no warning lights illuminated. The vehicle was taken to the local dealer, where it was diagnosed and determined that the front rotors were worn. The vehicle was repaired, but the failure recurred. The dealer informed the contact that the vehicle had not been driven properly and was a maintenance issue. The manufacturer was contacted and opened a case. The approximate failure mileage was 15,000.
NHTSA complaint #11631434 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
at 15,000 milesNewton Center, MA
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
The contact owns a 2022 Audi E-Tron. The contact stated while driving at an undisclosed speed, the rotors were pulsating and shaking. The contact stated while driving 65 MPH, unknown sensors engaged without an object or vehicle nearby. The contact had set the system to the lowest sensitivity. There were no warning lights illuminated. The vehicle was taken to the local dealer, where it was diagnosed and determined that the front rotors were worn. The vehicle was repaired, but the failure recurred. The dealer informed the contact that the vehicle had not been driven properly and was a maintenance issue. The manufacturer was contacted and opened a case. The approximate failure mileage was 15,000.
NHTSA complaint #11631434 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Lynbrook, NY
UNKNOWN OR OTHER
on multiple occasions the automatic locking feature for the doors doesn't work and says to see manual. I'm afraid i will get locked in the vehicle.
NHTSA complaint #11630345 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Lynbrook, NY
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
on multiple occasions the automatic locking feature for the doors doesn't work and says to see manual. I'm afraid i will get locked in the vehicle.
NHTSA complaint #11630345 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.
Carmichael, CA
UNKNOWN OR OTHER
I'm deeply concerned about the safety risks my family faces due to unresolved Audi recalls. On December 19 and 20, 2023, Audi issued two recalls: one for high-voltage battery modules that may self-discharge, leading to overheating and an increased risk of fire, and another for the 220V/240V charging cable, which can overheat home wiring, posing a serious fire hazard. On September 19, 2024, I took my car to Niello Audi to address these recalls, but they advised me to take the car home despite the significant safety risks. The service representative told me I couldn't receive a replacement charging cable because I did not have the original one; as the second owner, I never received it from the previous owner. He also mentioned that there was no remedy available for the battery issue and to come pick up my car the next day. I'm using an aftermarket charging cable, which the representative warned could increase the risk of fire. But I cannot get the cable required because I do not have the original. I transport my two young children in this car, and the thought of driving an unsafe vehicle is terrifying. On September 20, 2024, I contacted Audi America to file a claim and initiate the buyback process, as there is no safe solution available. I expressed my urgent concerns and requested a loaner car while the buyback is processed, but my request was denied despite stating it clearly was a safety issue. The Audi America representative told me to pick up my car and drive it, even after acknowledging the safety risks. Niello Audi provided a loaner for only one week, which is not long enough to navigate this complex process. This situation has left me feeling incredibly unsafe. My home is at risk of fire due to the unresolved charging cable issue, and I continue to worry about driving a vehicle with these serious problems. The ongoing recalls create an alarming risk for me and my family.
NHTSA complaint #11615697 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.