2022 RAM Promaster problems

STEERING

Intermittent 'Service Power Steering' and LaneSense warnings first appeared in May 2026. Repair shop found Diagnostic trouble code C1593-49 - Steering torque sensor circuit/internal electronic failure. The repair shop found water intrusion and corrosion at steering electrical connector(s). Cleaning did not resolve the fault. Diagnosis: Internal steering torque sensor failure. Sensor is integral to the electric steering rack; complete rack replacement required. Photos are available for inspection. Safety of the driver and all others on the road was at risk, as the 2022 Promaster 3500 is a heavy vehicle that could become unmanageable without power steering. Problem was confirmed by EAS Tire and Auto in Lafayette, Colorado. The component was returned to Mopar when the new component was ordered. This issue is an additional example/complaint to NHTSA Investigation PE26-002 for intermittent or complete loss of electric power steering, including reports involving water intrusion and corrosion affecting the power steering system. My vehicle exhibits substantially similar symptoms and diagnostic findings. I have a finalized repair invoice, diagnostic report showing DTC C1593-49, and photographs of corrosion/connectors.

NHTSA complaint #11757524 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

LANE DEPARTURE: WARNING

Intermittent 'Service Power Steering' and LaneSense warnings first appeared in May 2026. Repair shop found Diagnostic trouble code C1593-49 - Steering torque sensor circuit/internal electronic failure. The repair shop found water intrusion and corrosion at steering electrical connector(s). Cleaning did not resolve the fault. Diagnosis: Internal steering torque sensor failure. Sensor is integral to the electric steering rack; complete rack replacement required. Photos are available for inspection. Safety of the driver and all others on the road was at risk, as the 2022 Promaster 3500 is a heavy vehicle that could become unmanageable without power steering. Problem was confirmed by EAS Tire and Auto in Lafayette, Colorado. The component was returned to Mopar when the new component was ordered. This issue is an additional example/complaint to NHTSA Investigation PE26-002 for intermittent or complete loss of electric power steering, including reports involving water intrusion and corrosion affecting the power steering system. My vehicle exhibits substantially similar symptoms and diagnostic findings. I have a finalized repair invoice, diagnostic report showing DTC C1593-49, and photographs of corrosion/connectors.

NHTSA complaint #11757524 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

POWER TRAIN

Component/System: Structure – Cowl / Air Intake / Engine Issue: Water intrusion through cowl leading to intake flooding and engine hydrolock Summary of the Defect The vehicle experienced a catastrophic engine failure caused by water intrusion through the two piece cowl assembly. The seal between the two cowl sections failed, allowing rainwater to pour directly into the engine compartment. The intake manifold sits directly beneath this leak point and contains a recessed area where water can pool. After heavy rainfall, water entered the intake system and subsequently reached cylinders 2 and 4, causing the engine to hydrolock upon startup. The engine was rendered inoperable at only 29,139 miles. Detailed Description of the Incident The vehicle was parked outside an auto repair facility for a routine battery replacement. It was not driven during this period. Over the course of two heavy rain events, water entered the engine compartment through the failed seam in the two piece cowl. When the repair facility attempted to start the vehicle, the engine immediately hydrolocked. Upon disassembly: •The air intake tract was found full of water. •The intake manifold contained pooled water. •Cylinders 2 and 4 contained water. •The engine suffered internal damage consistent with hydrolock and was declared a total loss. All findings were documented by the mechanic, including photographs and diagnostic notes. Safety Concern This failure represents a serious safety defect. Water intrusion through a structural component should not be able to reach the intake manifold or engine cylinders under any circumstances — especially while the vehicle is stationary. A sudden hydrolock event can cause: •Immediate engine shutdown •Loss of motive power •Loss of power steering and braking assist •Potential loss of control if occurring while driving •Extremely costly engine destruction Inspected by mechanic. Nobody else. No warnings.

NHTSA complaint #11757003 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

STRUCTURE:BODY

Component/System: Structure – Cowl / Air Intake / Engine Issue: Water intrusion through cowl leading to intake flooding and engine hydrolock Summary of the Defect The vehicle experienced a catastrophic engine failure caused by water intrusion through the two piece cowl assembly. The seal between the two cowl sections failed, allowing rainwater to pour directly into the engine compartment. The intake manifold sits directly beneath this leak point and contains a recessed area where water can pool. After heavy rainfall, water entered the intake system and subsequently reached cylinders 2 and 4, causing the engine to hydrolock upon startup. The engine was rendered inoperable at only 29,139 miles. Detailed Description of the Incident The vehicle was parked outside an auto repair facility for a routine battery replacement. It was not driven during this period. Over the course of two heavy rain events, water entered the engine compartment through the failed seam in the two piece cowl. When the repair facility attempted to start the vehicle, the engine immediately hydrolocked. Upon disassembly: •The air intake tract was found full of water. •The intake manifold contained pooled water. •Cylinders 2 and 4 contained water. •The engine suffered internal damage consistent with hydrolock and was declared a total loss. All findings were documented by the mechanic, including photographs and diagnostic notes. Safety Concern This failure represents a serious safety defect. Water intrusion through a structural component should not be able to reach the intake manifold or engine cylinders under any circumstances — especially while the vehicle is stationary. A sudden hydrolock event can cause: •Immediate engine shutdown •Loss of motive power •Loss of power steering and braking assist •Potential loss of control if occurring while driving •Extremely costly engine destruction Inspected by mechanic. Nobody else. No warnings.

NHTSA complaint #11757003 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

STEERING

The forward collision light has been on but has not been affecting driving. Since I saw that here I figured it was worth mentioning. I have mentioned this to the dealership that is handling the current recalls as well. The more pressing issue is the steering. It happened once before where I was backing up and the steering wheel became difficult to rotate and violently jerking back against the direction of rotation. After shutting down the van and restarting it the issue had seemingly gone away. I emailed RAM about this initial occurrence but have yet to hear back. Last night, July 26, 2026, the issue occurred again as I was attempting to back out of my driveway. As I tried to turn the steering wheel it seemed to "fight" me, becoming difficult to rotate and violently jerking the other way against the direction I was attempting to rotate it. I switched from reverse to drive and was able to re-park the van where it was parked prior. My safety was not compromised in any considerable manner as this occurred at low, "driveway" speed. It was just me in the vehicle with no one else around. The problem has not been reproduced by a dealer yet nor has it been inspected by a dealer or service center. The warning lamps for the ESC and EPS came on once the problem began occurring but seemed to turn off after restarting. The problem appears to be currently intermittent in nature but, based on other accounts, the fact that this is occurring is seemingly indicative of a more serious issue in how this vehicle was manufactured. My concern is this happening at highway speeds where my safety and the safety of others will be jeopardized. ***I have a video I can send you but the link below does not allow mp4 files***

NHTSA complaint #11752975 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

FORWARD COLLISION AVOIDANCE: WARNINGS

The forward collision light has been on but has not been affecting driving. Since I saw that here I figured it was worth mentioning. I have mentioned this to the dealership that is handling the current recalls as well. The more pressing issue is the steering. It happened once before where I was backing up and the steering wheel became difficult to rotate and violently jerking back against the direction of rotation. After shutting down the van and restarting it the issue had seemingly gone away. I emailed RAM about this initial occurrence but have yet to hear back. Last night, July 26, 2026, the issue occurred again as I was attempting to back out of my driveway. As I tried to turn the steering wheel it seemed to "fight" me, becoming difficult to rotate and violently jerking the other way against the direction I was attempting to rotate it. I switched from reverse to drive and was able to re-park the van where it was parked prior. My safety was not compromised in any considerable manner as this occurred at low, "driveway" speed. It was just me in the vehicle with no one else around. The problem has not been reproduced by a dealer yet nor has it been inspected by a dealer or service center. The warning lamps for the ESC and EPS came on once the problem began occurring but seemed to turn off after restarting. The problem appears to be currently intermittent in nature but, based on other accounts, the fact that this is occurring is seemingly indicative of a more serious issue in how this vehicle was manufactured. My concern is this happening at highway speeds where my safety and the safety of others will be jeopardized. ***I have a video I can send you but the link below does not allow mp4 files***

NHTSA complaint #11752975 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

STEERING

I am reporting a severe, intermittent loss of Electronic Power Steering (EPS) assist on a 2022 Ram ProMaster cargo van at ~21,000 miles. The defect causes sudden drops in steering assistance and erratic wheel-jerking under heavy electrical loads during rapid, low-speed turns while parking.A professional dealer teardown and inspection at Dutch Miller Ram confirmed that environmental rainwater from the windshield cowl completely breached the factory weatherproofing seals. Standing liquid was found pooling inside the bottom floor of the connector housing, causing severe copper oxidation (galvanic corrosion) and visible electrical arcing on a constantly energized 12V male pin inside the EPS gear cylinder. This high-current bottleneck drops voltage under load, causing the internal ECU to cut assist as a safety fail-safe.Critically, this design defect created an immediate, progressive cascading failure dating back to the very first month of ownership. Because this 12V power line remains constantly "hot" while parked, the pooling water established an un-metered short-circuit bridge directly to the frame ground. This forced an aggressive parasitic electrical drain that repeatedly flattened the battery after sitting for short two-week intervals throughout its lifespan, destroying the original factory battery.The dealer's safety protocol requires a complete steering rack replacement. However, because Ram recognized this vulnerability, they completely superseded the part with a redesigned assembly that forces consumers to purchase new, non-faulty tie rod assemblies just to make it compatible, inflating costs to over $6,000. This data directly supports the active NHTSA investigation into 2022-2023 ProMaster steering modules. Furthermore I imagine that since some people may continue to drive the vehicle under this particular condition of "barely being affected" until there is sudden failure on the highway or zero signs prior to catastrophic failure. I STILL OWE $ ON THIS VEHICLE

NHTSA complaint #11749895 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

I am reporting a severe, intermittent loss of Electronic Power Steering (EPS) assist on a 2022 Ram ProMaster cargo van at ~21,000 miles. The defect causes sudden drops in steering assistance and erratic wheel-jerking under heavy electrical loads during rapid, low-speed turns while parking.A professional dealer teardown and inspection at Dutch Miller Ram confirmed that environmental rainwater from the windshield cowl completely breached the factory weatherproofing seals. Standing liquid was found pooling inside the bottom floor of the connector housing, causing severe copper oxidation (galvanic corrosion) and visible electrical arcing on a constantly energized 12V male pin inside the EPS gear cylinder. This high-current bottleneck drops voltage under load, causing the internal ECU to cut assist as a safety fail-safe.Critically, this design defect created an immediate, progressive cascading failure dating back to the very first month of ownership. Because this 12V power line remains constantly "hot" while parked, the pooling water established an un-metered short-circuit bridge directly to the frame ground. This forced an aggressive parasitic electrical drain that repeatedly flattened the battery after sitting for short two-week intervals throughout its lifespan, destroying the original factory battery.The dealer's safety protocol requires a complete steering rack replacement. However, because Ram recognized this vulnerability, they completely superseded the part with a redesigned assembly that forces consumers to purchase new, non-faulty tie rod assemblies just to make it compatible, inflating costs to over $6,000. This data directly supports the active NHTSA investigation into 2022-2023 ProMaster steering modules. Furthermore I imagine that since some people may continue to drive the vehicle under this particular condition of "barely being affected" until there is sudden failure on the highway or zero signs prior to catastrophic failure. I STILL OWE $ ON THIS VEHICLE

NHTSA complaint #11749895 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

STEERING

The power steering for my 2022 Ram Promaster failed on 3/7/24. The safety issue this caused was that steering the van was nearly impossible. Fortunately, the failure occurred while I was in a parking lot. The van had to be towed to the local dealer. The defective parts were on backorder (part number 6TB16JXWAC Module-steering control) and arrived on 5/21/24. This was covered under warranty and the repair work was done by the local dealer. There weren't any warning lamps that would indicate an issue. I used the van to drive to the jobsite, worked for a few hours, and the issue occurred as I was leaving for the day.

NHTSA complaint #11746282 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

SERVICE BRAKES

forward collision warning has never worked, after resetting it in controls it will show not working soon after. this has occurred in many 2022 and 2023 ProMaster units. the company says it is a weather problem. after replacing the camera unit, it still does not function. I purchased this unit new, it has never worked.I purchased this unit especially for this safety feature among others included in the contract.

NHTSA complaint #11743334 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

FORWARD COLLISION AVOIDANCE: WARNINGS

Promaster 3500 Forward Collision Warning turning itself off in Uconnect. Uconnect is where you can turn off FCW or set it to warning only, or warning and braking. I want it ON all the time but it keeps setting itself OFF. I turn on the vehicle and I see the warning light indicating it is turned OFF. I have to go into setting and set it manually. I will travel to get gas and when I re start the vehicle it is set OFF again. If I don't happen to notice it, I'm traveling down the road without this safety feature, which to me is dangerous and just not right. My Promaster is a Roadtrek van and the service manager at the dealer where I purchased the van says he sees this light on all the time on other Promaster vehicles and just ignores it. I see many posts on Roadtrek and Promaster forums that reference people having the same issue. Ram dealer finally acknowledged the issue but is unable to get any acknowledgement from the manufacturer that they are working on a fix. I've had this issue from day one and have taken it to the dealer several times with no resolution. This is one thread that documents what I have experienced as well: [XXX] INFORMATION REDACTED PURSUANT TO THE FREEDOM OF INFORMATION ACT (FOIA), 5 U.S.C. 552(B)(6)

NHTSA complaint #11742434 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

STEERING

While driving, the power steering stopped and basically locked up the steering wheel almost causing an accident. At the same time, multiple warnings flashed on the dash. After restarting, the vehicle operated as should until the following day when it occurred again and we had to have it towed to the dealership. Water intrusion and corrosion damaged a wiring harness and rack and pinion. The cost to repair was $5200. The dealership we use is Diehl Automotive. 6181 Steubenville Pike, McKees Rocks, PA 15136. They told me this is the 12th van they've had this happen to. They told me to report this incident since it is a safety hazard and the vehicle is only 4 years old.

NHTSA complaint #11742299 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

While driving, the power steering stopped and basically locked up the steering wheel almost causing an accident. At the same time, multiple warnings flashed on the dash. After restarting, the vehicle operated as should until the following day when it occurred again and we had to have it towed to the dealership. Water intrusion and corrosion damaged a wiring harness and rack and pinion. The cost to repair was $5200. The dealership we use is Diehl Automotive. 6181 Steubenville Pike, McKees Rocks, PA 15136. They told me this is the 12th van they've had this happen to. They told me to report this incident since it is a safety hazard and the vehicle is only 4 years old.

NHTSA complaint #11742299 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

VIN: [XXX] Recall data refreshed on Apr 18,2026 1Unrepaired Recalls associated with this VIN Oct 23,2025 Manufacturer Recall Number67C NHTSA Recall Number25V-720 Recall StatusRecall Incomplete, remedy not yet available Summary 4-13-2026 Is someone going to have to die because this vehicle is still on the road with a recall that could start a fire in the engine compartment that no one knows what causes it except that it has something to do with the radiator fans. This is a very serious situation. No one should be able to drive a vehicle with this kind of problem. This recall was issued several months ago, I think from October 2025. This van has a camper made in it by Thor Twist and sold by Camping World in Arkansas. We bought it to travel around the country we retire. What a nightmare. We have a granddaughter who lives with us and goes camping with us most of the time. We also have a handicapped daughter who also travels with us sometimes. She has never been able to walk. What if the van catches on fire while she is with us? My wife and I are in our mid [XXX] . We have been losing sleep thinking about this The people we bought it from said it’s not their responsibility, same as Thor Twist. They say it’s a chassis problem and we need to call Chrysler Corporation. I called the Chrysler Corporation the Dodge dealership near our location. Recall notice states “The remedy for this condition is not currently available. We can’t plan any vacation time due to this recall. We now have nightmares about traveling anywhere in this van. We paid over $100,000 for this van and cannot use it. We are requesting that we return the van and get all our money back. We have had nothing but problems with this van and worry about making any trips in it in the future. We have had it in the shop 4 times for recalls and several other times for malfunctioning issues. We were unable to use the van for weeks at a time. Let us return it please. INFORMATION REDACTED PURSUANT TO THE FREEDOM OF INFORMATION ACT (FOIA), 5 U.S.C. 552(B)(6)

NHTSA complaint #11732010 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

ENGINE

VIN: [XXX] Recall data refreshed on Apr 18,2026 1Unrepaired Recalls associated with this VIN Oct 23,2025 Manufacturer Recall Number67C NHTSA Recall Number25V-720 Recall StatusRecall Incomplete, remedy not yet available Summary 4-13-2026 Is someone going to have to die because this vehicle is still on the road with a recall that could start a fire in the engine compartment that no one knows what causes it except that it has something to do with the radiator fans. This is a very serious situation. No one should be able to drive a vehicle with this kind of problem. This recall was issued several months ago, I think from October 2025. This van has a camper made in it by Thor Twist and sold by Camping World in Arkansas. We bought it to travel around the country we retire. What a nightmare. We have a granddaughter who lives with us and goes camping with us most of the time. We also have a handicapped daughter who also travels with us sometimes. She has never been able to walk. What if the van catches on fire while she is with us? My wife and I are in our mid [XXX] . We have been losing sleep thinking about this The people we bought it from said it’s not their responsibility, same as Thor Twist. They say it’s a chassis problem and we need to call Chrysler Corporation. I called the Chrysler Corporation the Dodge dealership near our location. Recall notice states “The remedy for this condition is not currently available. We can’t plan any vacation time due to this recall. We now have nightmares about traveling anywhere in this van. We paid over $100,000 for this van and cannot use it. We are requesting that we return the van and get all our money back. We have had nothing but problems with this van and worry about making any trips in it in the future. We have had it in the shop 4 times for recalls and several other times for malfunctioning issues. We were unable to use the van for weeks at a time. Let us return it please. INFORMATION REDACTED PURSUANT TO THE FREEDOM OF INFORMATION ACT (FOIA), 5 U.S.C. 552(B)(6)

NHTSA complaint #11732010 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

STEERING

The contact called for the owner of a 2022 Ram Promaster 3500. The vehicle was taken to be serviced due to a power steering failure. While operating the vehicle, the owner experienced a power steering failure, and the steering wheel was difficult to turn to the left or the right. The messages "Service Power Steering", "Service Hill Assist", "Service Collision Warning", "Blind Spot Alert Unavailable", and “Service ESC" were displayed. The contact diagnosed the vehicle and determined that water was inside the main steering connector, causing the power steering failure. The owner was informed that the steering rack needed to be replaced. The vehicle was not yet repaired. The manufacturer and local dealer were not contacted. The contact was informed of NHTSA Action Number: PE26002 (STEERING, ELECTRICAL SYSTEM). The contact stated that the vehicle had experienced the failure listed in the investigation. The failure mileage was 68,974.

NHTSA complaint #11725316 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

The contact called for the owner of a 2022 Ram Promaster 3500. The vehicle was taken to be serviced due to a power steering failure. While operating the vehicle, the owner experienced a power steering failure, and the steering wheel was difficult to turn to the left or the right. The messages "Service Power Steering", "Service Hill Assist", "Service Collision Warning", "Blind Spot Alert Unavailable", and “Service ESC" were displayed. The contact diagnosed the vehicle and determined that water was inside the main steering connector, causing the power steering failure. The owner was informed that the steering rack needed to be replaced. The vehicle was not yet repaired. The manufacturer and local dealer were not contacted. The contact was informed of NHTSA Action Number: PE26002 (STEERING, ELECTRICAL SYSTEM). The contact stated that the vehicle had experienced the failure listed in the investigation. The failure mileage was 68,974.

NHTSA complaint #11725316 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

ENGINE AND ENGINE COOLING

The contact owns a 2022 Ram Promaster 2500. The contact received notification of NHTSA Campaign Number: 25V720000 (ENGINE AND ENGINE COOLING); however, the part to do the recall repair was not yet available. The local dealer was contacted. The contact stated that the manufacturer had exceeded a reasonable amount of time for the recall repair. The manufacturer was made aware of the issue. The contact had not experienced a failure.

NHTSA complaint #11716815 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

ENGINE AND ENGINE COOLING

The contact owns a 2022 Ram Promaster 2500. The contact received notification of NHTSA Campaign Number: 25V720000 (ENGINE AND ENGINE COOLING); however, the part to do the recall repair was not yet available. The local dealer was contacted. The contact stated that the manufacturer had exceeded a reasonable amount of time for the recall repair. The manufacturer was made aware of the issue. The contact had not experienced a failure.

NHTSA complaint #11716821 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

UNKNOWN OR OTHER

This recall is supposed to be lifted as this is an RV. Please lift this recall

NHTSA complaint #11707490 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

My vehicle is subject to Safety Recall 67C for an engine-compartment fire risk involving the cooling fan module and inadequate fuse protection. I contacted an authorized Ram dealership and Stellantis corporate. Both confirmed that the recall is open and that no repair remedy is currently available. Stellantis has confirmed in writing (Case #95056397) that there is no interim safety solution available for affected owners while this recall remains unresolved. This vehicle is my primary residence. Stellantis has offered rental reimbursement, but this does not provide a safe or realistic interim solution for a vehicle that functions as both transportation and housing. The manufacturer has acknowledged a fire risk but has provided no interim safety guidance or accommodation for owners who cannot reasonably stop using the vehicle while awaiting a remedy. I am reporting this as a safety concern due to the lack of a remedy and the absence of interim safety guidance for affected owners. Stellantis has issued a stop-sale on affected vehicles, confirming the seriousness of the defect, while existing owners remain without a viable safety alternative.

NHTSA complaint #11706682 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

ENGINE

My vehicle is subject to Safety Recall 67C for an engine-compartment fire risk involving the cooling fan module and inadequate fuse protection. I contacted an authorized Ram dealership and Stellantis corporate. Both confirmed that the recall is open and that no repair remedy is currently available. Stellantis has confirmed in writing (Case #95056397) that there is no interim safety solution available for affected owners while this recall remains unresolved. This vehicle is my primary residence. Stellantis has offered rental reimbursement, but this does not provide a safe or realistic interim solution for a vehicle that functions as both transportation and housing. The manufacturer has acknowledged a fire risk but has provided no interim safety guidance or accommodation for owners who cannot reasonably stop using the vehicle while awaiting a remedy. I am reporting this as a safety concern due to the lack of a remedy and the absence of interim safety guidance for affected owners. Stellantis has issued a stop-sale on affected vehicles, confirming the seriousness of the defect, while existing owners remain without a viable safety alternative.

NHTSA complaint #11706682 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

STEERING

Less than a half mile into my work day the van started flashing all warning lights ( Hill assist, power steering, service engine, abs ETC.) I was on a busy road and was attempting to pull off to safety But the van turned off. Was able to jump it after 2 attempts and get it to the dealer 1 mile away, without any other lights coming back on aside from CEL. Dealer informed me I have 2 Corroded wiring harnesses, bad rack & Pinion and alternator is at 7%.... From what I've heard, this is a problem that could have been prevented by the manufacturers.. I also had a Transmission replacement at 30k miles and full Engine replacement at 55k miles. Currently at 80k Miles... This is Unacceptable for a Commercial fleet vehicle.

NHTSA complaint #11705681 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Less than a half mile into my work day the van started flashing all warning lights ( Hill assist, power steering, service engine, abs ETC.) I was on a busy road and was attempting to pull off to safety But the van turned off. Was able to jump it after 2 attempts and get it to the dealer 1 mile away, without any other lights coming back on aside from CEL. Dealer informed me I have 2 Corroded wiring harnesses, bad rack & Pinion and alternator is at 7%.... From what I've heard, this is a problem that could have been prevented by the manufacturers.. I also had a Transmission replacement at 30k miles and full Engine replacement at 55k miles. Currently at 80k Miles... This is Unacceptable for a Commercial fleet vehicle.

NHTSA complaint #11705681 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.

STEERING

Power Steering Failed

NHTSA complaint #11704910 — an unverified report by a vehicle owner.